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Earth, Planets and Space
Fig. 1 | Earth, Planets and Space

Fig. 1

From: Performance of the double-thin-shell approach for studying nighttime medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances using two dense GNSS observation networks in Japan

Fig. 1

Image obtained from the works of Fu et al. (2022): a typical geometric relation of the double-thin-shell model. S represents a GNSS satellite and R indicates a receiver. \(\eta\) and \(\gamma\) are the elevation and azimuth of the satellite, respectively, \(\chi\) is the local satellite zenith angle, \(\psi\) is the geocentric angle, \({R}_{e}\) represents the mean radius of the Earth, \({h}_{E}\) and \({h}_{F}\) represent the heights of E and F layers, respectively. Red points of intersection (\(\lambda\), \(\varphi\)) are referred to as the ionosphere pierce points (IPPs)

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