Fig. 3
From: Application of ground scatter returns for calibration of HF interferometry data
Numerical ray-tracing simulation of an 11-MHz radio wave propagating through a horizontally uniform Chapman layer with the maximum height of 300 km, the scale height of 30 km and the maximum plasma frequency of 8 MHz. The orange, red and green trajectories show escaping, Pedersen (high-angle) and low-angle rays, respectively. The black dots show group range marks at 250-km steps. The yellow contour shows “reflection” point locations for the Pedersen and the low-angle rays. The blue shading illustrates distribution of the ionospheric refractive index