Table 1. Material properties, physical parameters, and input parameters for simulation.

Gravitational body force per unit mass, g

9.81 m s⁻²

Density of solid pyroclasts, σ

1000 kg m⁻³

Specific heat of solid pyroclasts, C_vs

1100 J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹

Specific heat of volcanic gas, C_vg

1348 J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹

Specific heat of air, C_va

713 J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹

Gas constant of volcanic gas, R_g

462 J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹

Gas constant of air, R_a

287 J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹

Altitude of vent

1400 m

Volatile content, n_g0

3 wt%

Magma temperature, T₀

1273.15 K

Initial mixture density, ρ₀

5.74 kg m⁻³

Mass discharge rate,m₀

1.5 × 10⁶ kg s ⁻¹

Exit velocity, w₀

134 m s⁻¹

Vent diameter, D₀

49 m