Fig. 3

a The final resistivity model sliced at 1.5, 3, 6 and 10 km BSL. Major features are labeled as C1, C2 and R1. b The resistivity model sliced along SW–NE and N–S lines, as shown in panel a. The red rectangles in panel a indicates the estimated deformation source by Faculty of Science, Hokkaido Univ. (2019). However, the source is shown by a dashed line in the cross section (b) as its thickness is unconstrained from the geodetic modeling. White dots indicate the hypocenters of volcanic earthquakes that occurred between 2004 and 2019 around Mt. Meakandake (provided by Sapporo Regional Headquarters, JMA). The symbols P, N, and F denote P and N craters, and a fumarolic area, respectively