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Earth, Planets and Space
Fig. 1 | Earth, Planets and Space

Fig. 1

From: New aspects of the upper atmospheric disturbances caused by the explosive eruption of the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha’apai volcano

Fig. 1

Schematic view of generation of atmospheric and ionospheric disturbances associated with a volcanic eruption. After the onset of a volcanic eruption, acoustic and gravity waves are generated by local pressure and density variations. The amplitude grows with increasing altitude. The acoustic waves propagating at the sound velocity (Va) arrive in the ionosphere within ~ 8–9 min after the onset of a volcanic eruption. Because the propagation velocity of the gravity waves is much slower than that of the acoustic waves, the gravity waves reach the ionosphere within ~ 45–60 min after the eruption

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